Relationship between insecticide resistance profiles in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato and agricultural practices in Côte d’Ivoire

Background: Insecticide-based malaria vector control is increasingly undermined due to the development of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes. Insecticide resistance may partially be related to the use of pesticides in agriculture, while the level and mechanisms of resistance might differ between agricultural practices. The current study aimed to assess whether phenotypic insecticide resistance and associated molecular resistance mechanisms in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato differ between agricultural practices. Methods: We collected An. gambiae s.l. larvae in six sites with three different agricultural practices, including rice, vegetable and cocoa cultivation. We then exposed the emerging adult females to discriminating concentrations of bendiocarb (0.1%), deltamethrin (0.05%), DDT (4%) and malathion (5%) using the standard World Health Organization insecticide susceptibility test. To investigate underlying molecular mechanisms of resistance, we used multiplex TaqMan qPCR assays. We determined the frequency of target-site mutations, including Vgsc-L995F/S and Vgsc-N1570Y, and Ace1-G280S. In addition, we measured the expression levels of genes previously associated with insecticide resistance in An. gambiae s.l., including the cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases CYP4G16, CYP6M2, CYP6P1, CYP6P3, CYP6P4, CYP6Z1 and CYP9K1, and the glutathione S-transferase GSTe2. Results: The An. gambiae s.l. populations from all six agricultural sites were resistant to bendiocarb, deltamethrin and DDT, while the populations from the two vegetable cultivation sites were additionally resistant to malathion. Most tested mosquitoes carried at least one mutant Vgsc-L995F allele that is associated with pyrethroid and DDT resistance. In the cocoa cultivation sites, we observed the highest 995F frequencies (80–87%), including a majority of homozygous mutants and several in co-occurrence with the Vgsc-N1570Y mutation. We detected the Ace1 mutation most frequently in vegetable-growing sites (51–60%), at a moderate frequency in rice (20–22%) and rarely in cocoa-growing sites (3–4%). In contrast, CYP6M2, CYP6P3, CYP6P4, CYP6Z1 and CYP9K1, previously associated with metabolic insecticide resistance, showed the highest expression levels in the populations from rice-growing sites compared to the susceptible Kisumu reference strain. Conclusion: In our study, we observed intriguing associations between the type of agricultural practices and certain insecticide resistance profiles in the malaria vector An. gambiae s.l. which might arise from the use of pesticides deployed for protecting crops. Graphical Abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.].